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The explanation of the photo-electric effect in 1905 literally shed light on the structure of matter. Nevertheless, it still took 40 years before the first practical solid devices exploited this understanding for detection of ionizing nuclear particles. From then on, during 70 years a succession of innovations has led to widespread use of semiconductor nuclear detectors in physics, materials analysis and medical imaging. The silicon-based micro- and nano-electronics technology enabled much of these semiconductor sensor developments. (Short demo with Timepix device).
Introductory concepts: cross section, mean free path and attenuation coefficients. Interaction of photons with matter: photoelectric effect (Auger electrons and fluorescence photons), Compton scattering, pair production, Rayleigh scattering. Interaction of electrons with matter. Emphasis on materials commonly used as radiation detectors (Si, GaAs, CdTe, CdZnTe, Ge)
Semiconductor properties, the p-n junction (depletion width, capacitance), fluctuations on the charge (Fano factor), signal induction, drift, diffusion and the small pixel effect. Detectors classification (for example: 1. Hybrid (1.a. hybrid, 1.b. hybrid+3d), 2. Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (2.a CMOS with charge collection on epitaxial layer, 2.b. Depleted MAPS (HV or HR substrate), CMOS on SOI, DEPFETs).
CMOS transistors, Moore’s law, technology roadmap, operation and characteristics (equations for strong and weak inversion), (very short description of bipolars, circuits where they are used) small signal circuit, matching, noise, passive components in CMOS technologies, radiation effects, technology scaling.
Analog CMOS circuit design: The charge sensitive amplifier (Noise mechanisms, ENC, noise sources, dimensioning the input transistor, the preamplifier reset, the shaper, baseline stabilization, discriminator, sample and hold, ADCs, TDCs, packaging and interconnects, examples.
Analog CMOS circuit design: The charge sensitive amplifier (Noise mechanisms, ENC, noise sources, dimensioning the input transistor, the preamplifier reset, the shaper, baseline stabilization, discriminator, sample and hold, ADCs, TDCs, packaging and interconnects, examples.
Si and compound semiconductor sensor design (distances, implantation, interpixel capacitance), edgeless Si sensors. Interconnections: Bump bonding, TSV (types, processing steps, materials involved, etc.)
Radiation hardness in semiconductor detectors. 3D detectors.
Applications of hybrid pixel detectors: medical, space applications, dosimetry, material science, electron microscopy
Applications of hybrid pixel detectors: medical, space applications, dosimetry, material science, electron microscopy.
ASICs for spectroscopic X-Ray imaging, digitization methods, count-rate, strategies for dealing with high fluxes, charge summing and hit allocation architectures, power consumption, detector tiling.
Passive monolithic pixel sensors and active monolithic pixel sensors: CCDs, CMOS with charge collection on epitaxial layer, Depleted MAPS (HV or HR substrate), CMOS on SOI, DEPFETs
Synchrotron radiation and XFEL experiments exploit the iteraction of X-rays with the sample under examination in order to investigate its properties.
Depending on the application, the detector should detect the X-rays transmitted, scattered, diffracted or produced by the samples or the photoelectrons emitted, providing high temporal, spatial or energy resolution.
The requirements on the dynamic range are particularly demanding due to the high fluxes provided by synchrotron beamlines and to the need to detect signals also from weakly interacting samples.
Starting from the requirement of the experiments we will review some of the detectors used at synchrotrons:
- Diffraction/scattering: hybrid detectors;
- Fluorescence emission spectroscopy: SDD, MAIA, crystal based spectrometers;
- High resolution imaging: Scintillator-coupled detectors and hybrid detectors with interpolation;
- Soft X-rays: CCDs
The requirements become even more challenging in the case of XFELs where several thousands photons per pixel should be detected in one shot and therefore special solutions for extending the dynamic range have to be found.
We will review some of the detectors used at existing XFELs (CSPAD, pnCCD, MPCCD, GOTTHARD) and developed for the future sources (AGIPD, LPD, DSRC, JUNGFRAU, PERCIVAL).
Space applications of semiconductor detectors: pixel detectors, strip detector, Compton detectors. Examples: AMS, Astrogam, LOFT, Athena.
Review of photodetectors model: APD, SPAD, SiPM. Front end electronics for photodetectors: input stage (charge amplifier, transimpedance, RF amplifiers), effect of interconnetions. Optimal processing for timing: design considerations, filtering, TDC design, etc. Examples of readout ASICs for photodetection.
DECTRIS is a technology leader in hybrid photon counting X-Ray detection. The DECTRIS photon counting detectors have transformed basic research at synchrotron light sources, as well as in the laboratory and with industrial X-Ray applications. This pioneering technology is the basis of a broad range of products, all scaled to meet the needs of various applications. The focus of today’s talk will be in describing the basic steps of the DECTRIS product development process. The different disciplines involved in this development process will be identified, with particular emphasis on their specific roles and on how they continuously have to interact with each other requiring precise coordination. Furthermore, the basics and the advantages of single-photon counting technology will be discussed. A brief overview of DECTRIS and of the DECTRIS product portfolio will also be presented.
PANalytical provides solutions for the chemical (which and how much of certain elements) and structural (in what molecular structure) analysis of a wide variety of materials. Our customers can be found in virtually all markets including building materials, metals, mining, food, pharma, cosmetics, polymers, oils, plastics, thin film metrology, nanomaterials and many more in industries and research.
Our solutions are based upon analytical X-ray technologies like X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry. Over the last two decades PANalytical has introduced a number of solid-state detectors in a range of instruments as an essential part for performance improvement.
Solid-state detectors are the enabling technology for the energy-dispersive XRF (EDXRF) spectrometry where instrument performance is directly linked to detector properties. One- and two-dimensionsal XRD analysis is enhanced and enabled by the use of stripped and pixelized sensors linked to the dedicated application-specific integrated circuits (ASIC) for sensor readout.
Main performance drivers for future detectors are the improvements in energy resolution such as: count-rate capability, detection area, detection efficiency and radiation hardness. Detectors used for XRD analysis have an extra demand of good spatial resolution. These requirements are universal for all X-ray detectors, but the applicable solution is determined by the underlying technology.
Digitizers for photodetectors: ADCs, waveform sampling, etc. Digital pulse processing with emphais on timing properties extraction.
Applications of photodetectors in high energy physics and medical imaging. Focused on solid state (APDs, SPADs, SIPM) but in context of PMT technology.
pplication of photodetectors in Super-resolution Microscopy, Single Molecule Spectroscopy, Time-resolved Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Application of photodetctors in ground and space astrophsyics instruments. CD and CMOS Imaging Devices for Ground Based Telescopes and Space Missions. Cosmic ray amd VHE particle detection with solid state photo-sensors.